Juan Van Halen y Sarti, Memoirs of Don Juan van Halen (1828) - Part 5

Juan Van Halen y Sarti (1788 – 1864) was a Spanish military officer and adventurer who had a rather colorful life. During the Peninsular War (1808-1813) he initially supported the French and served King Joseph Bonaparte of Spain, helping him escape to France in 1813. He then defected to the Spanish side but was investigated for his role during the war and sentenced to death. In 1817, he avoided death by escaping from prison and fleeing to Russia, where he was accepted into the military service and appointed a colonel in the Kavkazskii Dragoon Regiment deployed in Georgia. In 1819, Van Halen traveled to Georgia where he stayed for over a year and served under the leadership of General Alexey Yermolov. In 1821 Van Halen returned to Spain to support the revolutionaries who rebelled against King Ferdinand VII. After the revolution failed, Van Halen had to flee once again, traveling to the Caribbean. In 1830, he returned to Europe supporting the Belgian revolutionaries against the Dutch monarchy. After the new kingdom of Belgium was established, he moved to the Iberian Peninsula where he first supported Portuguese Liberals against King Miguel I and then fought against the Carlists during the First Carlist Wars in Spain. 

Van Halen died in El Puerto de Santa María (Cadiz, Spain), at the age of 76, in 1864.

In the late 1820s, Van Halen wrote (in Spanish) an interesting memoir describing his imprisonment in Spain in 1817-1818 and later service in the Caucasus in 1819-1821. The memoir was later translated into English and published in London in 1830.

The pretensions of the Georgian nobility, respecting their ancient origin, are as absurd as any in the world, and most of them claim their descent from David. This is the reason why the majority have a harp in their coat of arms. They are generally very proud, though they shew themselves so only to the natives, for they seldom venture to boast of such ridiculous pretensions to foreigners : the old men among the aristocracy being too well aware of their inferiority in point of education, and the young men knowing that whatever they have acquired in this respect, they owe it to the Russians. Among the Georgian princes the feudal system is still in existence, and, as was formerly the custom in Europe, their vassals follow them to the wars.

The Persian language is spoken among the higher class, as the French is in Europe. There are two dialects commonly used in Georgia; the one by the ecclesiastics in their religious performances, and the other by the civilians. The former is derived from the Greek and the Armenian, and. the latter from the Persian and the Turkish languages. As it invariably happens when one nation passes under the dominion of another, many Russian words have already been introduced into the Georgian dialect. The Georgians and the Armenians, unlike the rest of the Asiatic nations, write from left to right. Their literature, though it dates its origin from Tamar, has no claim to that appellation, and is confined to a few ballads; but the calamities in which Georgia has been involved by the frequent invasions of the Persians and other barbarians, account for the slow progress of learning. During the reign of Heraclius [king Erekle II of kartli-Kakheti, late 18th century] a new grammar was composed, which is still in use. Several classic works were also translated, and various schools established...  

Although the Georgian weddings are similar to the Russian, as far as regards the religious ceremony, they differ in other respects, particularly among the nobility. The marriages in this class are always contracted with a view to family interests, and very rarely through love and esteem. It was formerly the custom for the parents to betroth their children from the cradle, and their union often took place at so early an age, that the united years of the bride and bridegroom did not amount to twenty-four. It was by this means that the unhappy parents eluded the tribute both of girls and boys whom the Tzars of Georgia were obliged to send to the Mahometans [Muslims] when they were tributary to them. 

Another indispensable part of the etiquette was, that the betrothed persons should not have previously seen each other, a custom which, since their intercourse with the Russians, is not so much adhered to. The ceremony to which I alluded above, however, remains unchanged, such being the attachment of these people to their ancient customs.

The bride proceeds to the church covered with a thick veil, in which are two holes for the eyes, and the bridegroom leads her by the hand to the altar with the anxiety natural to one who has not the remotest idea of the physical or moral qualities of his bride. 

When the religious ceremony is concluded, they are conducted to the house of the girl's parents, amidst the firing of musketry, where the couple are placed in the middle of a saloon, the bride still covered with her veil; and all their friends sit around them, for several hours remaining in the same attitude, without uttering a single word, or taking any refreshment; whilst the bride and bridegroom, by their immobility, appear more like two figures on an altar than two human beings, the latter probably praying Heaven for a favourable denouement of this matrimonial drama. After this long penance, the bridesmaid lifts up the veil of the bride. It may be easily conceived the different impressions which this act must produce in the bridegroom, who, however, folds his wife in his arms, of course more than once, if his prayer has been listened to; and thus often love begins where etiquette ends.

Soon after my arrival at Teflis, General [Akhverdov], commandant of the artillery of the Georgian army, whose house I had much frequented, died in the flower of his age. Although I have always been of opinion, that some better means than funeral processions and parade might be devised to evince our regret for the loss of those we love and esteem, the friendly terms on which I had been with the family obliged me to accept an invitation to attend the funeral. 

I therefore repaired to the house of General [Akhverdov] at the appointed hour, where I found the body lying in state. The officers most attached to him acted as pall-bearers, and the military ceremony was in every respect similar to that used in Europe; but immediately after the corpse, the widow and children of the deceased advanced on foot in deep mourning. On our arrival at the church, [the widow] was led to the steps of the funeral monument raised in the middle of the church, where she remained during the long Greek requiem, offering the most afflicting spectacle imaginable ; and, as if this were not sufficient, the wretched lady and her children were conducted to the top of the monument, to take their last farewell of the mortal remains deposited in the coffin. The scene of distress which followed was of a truly heart-rending nature.

The Georgians observe the same rites in their funerals as the Russians; but some of their ceremonies differ. Thus the horse of the deceased (and there are very few men in Asia who do not possess a horse) always precedes the corpse, carrying the saddle invertedly. Behind the coffin come his relations, bearing his arms lowered almost to the earth ; and in the rear follow his whole family, mother, wife, brothers, sisters, and children, uttering at every moment the most lamentable cries.

In the church the women remain prostrate on the coffin for several hours, and immediately after the interment the funeral procession returns to the house in the same order as before. The men then withdraw, and the women seat themselves on the ground around the widow, all observing the most profound silence ; until one of those who is reputed the most eloquent among them, enumerates at intervals some of the good qualities that adorned the deceased, when the clamorous lamentations, groans, shrieks, and tears commence. The widow, whether she be inclined or not, scratches her face, tears her hair, and does all in her power to disfigure herself. This ceremony is repeated every day for several hours during the space of six weeks ; and thus the disconsolate relict undergoes a Lent of affliction. What artifices must be resorted to in order to cause their tears to flow for such a length of time ! But absurd as is the custom, it is very difficult to alter the usage here detailed.

In some of the provinces of the Caucasus, where the Christian religion is not professed, the same custom is observed. Our surprise, however, lessens respecting these long and weeping mourning, when we are informed that the women in this country are not allowed to marry a second time; for when they do so, they bring upon themselves the execration of their friends: a custom which is perhaps no less absurd than the former.

Juan Van Halen y Sarti, Memoirs of Don Juan van Halen (1828) - Part 4

Juan Van Halen y Sarti (1788 – 1864) was a Spanish military officer and adventurer who had a rather colorful life. During the Peninsular War (1808-1813) he initially supported the French and served King Joseph Bonaparte of Spain, helping him escape to France in 1813. He then defected to the Spanish side but was investigated for his role during the war and sentenced to death. In 1817, he avoided death by escaping from prison and fleeing to Russia, where he was accepted into the military service and appointed a colonel in the Kavkazskii Dragoon Regiment deployed in Georgia. In 1819, Van Halen traveled to Georgia where he stayed for over a year and served under the leadership of General Alexey Yermolov. In 1821 Van Halen returned to Spain to support the revolutionaries who rebelled against King Ferdinand VII. After the revolution failed, Van Halen had to flee once again, traveling to the Caribbean. In 1830, he returned to Europe supporting the Belgian revolutionaries against the Dutch monarchy. After the new kingdom of Belgium was established, he moved to the Iberian Peninsula where he first supported Portuguese Liberals against King Miguel I and then fought against the Carlists during the First Carlist Wars in Spain. 

Van Halen died in El Puerto de Santa María (Cadiz, Spain), at the age of 76, in 1864.

In the late 1820s, Van Halen wrote (in Spanish) an interesting memoir describing his imprisonment in Spain in 1817-1818 and later service in the Caucasus in 1819-1821. The memoir was later translated into English and published in London in 1830.

The baths of Tiflis are situated at the eastern extremity of the city, at the foot of hill, and on the road leading to the southern provinces. The hot springs pour through the rocks into the baths, and are considered an excellent specific for rheumatic complaints, and for certain kinds of wounds. They serve likewise for the continual ablutions to which the Georgians, like all the Asiatics, are accustomed. The heat of these baths is from 12 to 50 degrees of Reaumur. The sulphureous smells which those from 30° to 40° emit, render them very unpleasant, those used for common purposes being from 12° upwards. They are open to the public night and day, through the whole week, except on Saturdays, when they are generally engaged by the Georgian women.

The basins for bathing are cut near the rock, and underneath the pipes through which the water flows. The baths are divided into three or four grottoes, each of a different temperature, and only one of which admits a little light through a small sky-light in the vault, which is constructed of brick, in the Arabian manner. The baths for the men are exclusively served by Tartars, who are accustomed to this kind of service.

When a person arrives at the bath, one of the Tartars conducts him to a platform covered with carpet, where he undresses previous to his entering the bath. At the door of the second grotto he is met by another Tartar, who, like all those employed in the interior of these dark vaults, which are scarcely lighted by the feeble glimmerings of a few lamps, is in a state of nature. Here he may be said to receive a vapour-bath, produced by the steam issuing from the hot springs. On his arriving at the entrance of the bathing grotto, a stranger is obliged to carry on his conversation by signs, as very few can make themselves understood by these men. The repeated process of compressing the body, twisting the limbs, making the joints play, and handling one like a sponge, &c. which then commences, has been so frequently described, that I will pass it over in silence, remarking only, that two hours after these ablutions, one feels an extraordinary improvement in the whole frame.

The women, especially those of the higher class, were formerly in the habit of spending four-and-twenty hours in these vaults; but now they only remain here during a few hours, though the whole of Saturday the baths are exclusively engaged for them. Besides bathing, the Georgian women make here their toilet, seated on Carpets brought by their attendants. Both old and young make use of a pomatum prepared by themselves, by means of which they preserve the colour of their hair, especially those of an advanced age. They also paint and varnish their faces with red and white, and their nails with yellow, whilst they tease themselves with endeavouring to make their eyebrows meet, which, in this country, is considered as essential to beauty.

When their toilet is ended, they lie down to sleep; and, on awakening, are served with various refreshments, chiefly consisting of fruits and preserves. Formerly, they never uncovered their faces before a stranger ; but at present that custom is so far abolished, that, though they still shew some shyness, they only veil whilst travelling, when they invariably ride astride on horse back, entirely dressed in white, and preceded by a running footman, who is armed with a stick.

On Sundays, the families assemble in the evening, which they chiefly spend in dancing, the ladies always by themselves, and in couples, the various attitudes they use being too wanton to permit the men to take a part in the dances, without, in some measure, transgressing the rules prescribed by decorum. There is some resemblance between these and the national dances of Andalusia, although the music of the former chiefly consists of timbrels and tambourines, and sometimes of a harp.

With respect to the beauty of the Georgian women, it differs according to the various provinces ; but those who are best entitled to the celebrity they enjoy for personal attractions, inhabit the country about the Caucasus. According to the opinion of persons who have had the opportunity of estimating their mental qualities, the Georgian women are endowed with lively imaginations, generous feelings, and vehement passions ; and, as most of the defects in their character arise more from habit and want of education than from nature, the improvement which they are daily making in the former will quickly cause them to disappear.

In Georgia, prostitution and adultery are almost unknown, though there still exists a custom among the lower class for the parents to give their daughters, for a small sum of money, to those who wish to live with them ; but, as this is done through the intervention of the police, this sort of commerce becomes, in some measure, legal, and prevents the children born under these circumstances from being abandoned.

The women, during the time they are thus united, observe the utmost fidelity, and are as careful and economical in their household concerns, as if they were linked to their companions by more binding ties. From the moment the parents have resigned their daughters, they have no further control over them, nor can they see them but with the permission of the temporary husband, or when they are called to take them back. As the man who forms this kind of connection must give a pecuniary guarantee to the police, if he wishes his children to be placed in the asylum for orphans rather than take charge of them, they become, from the moment of their birth, children of the government, who not only educate, but afterwards give them a profession analogous to their dispositions.

The Georgians of the lower class do not scruple to marry women who may have been thus living with other men ; and when they possess them and their dowry, their jealousy is such, that it surpasses all that is said of the ancient Spaniards. Generally speaking, the Georgian women, whether mistresses or wives, have such a strong attachment for the object of their affection, no matter what his age or personal appearance may be, that they look upon infidelity with the greatest horror.

Juan Van Halen y Sarti, Memoirs of Don Juan van Halen (1828) - Part 3

Juan Van Halen y Sarti (1788 – 1864) was a Spanish military officer and adventurer who had a rather colorful life. During the Peninsular War (1808-1813) he initially supported the French and served King Joseph Bonaparte of Spain, helping him escape to France in 1813. He then defected to the Spanish side but was investigated for his role during the war and sentenced to death. In 1817, he avoided death by escaping from prison and fleeing to Russia, where he was accepted into the military service and appointed a colonel in the Kavkazskii Dragoon Regiment deployed in Georgia. In 1819, Van Halen traveled to Georgia where he stayed for over a year and served under the leadership of General Alexey Yermolov. In 1821 Van Halen returned to Spain to support the revolutionaries who rebelled against King Ferdinand VII. After the revolution failed, Van Halen had to flee once again, traveling to the Caribbean. In 1830, he returned to Europe supporting the Belgian revolutionaries against the Dutch monarchy. After the new kingdom of Belgium was established, he moved to the Iberian Peninsula where he first supported Portuguese Liberals against King Miguel I and then fought against the Carlists during the First Carlist Wars in Spain. 

Van Halen died in El Puerto de Santa María (Cadiz, Spain), at the age of 76, in 1864.

In the late 1820s, Van Halen wrote (in Spanish) an interesting memoir describing his imprisonment in Spain in 1817-1818 and later service in the Caucasus in 1819-1821. The memoir was later translated into English and published in London in 1830.

The costume of these various provinces differs but little. They all wear very wide trousers, two short tunics, the under one always of some bright colour, and the other of cloth, either blue or of a darker hue, the sleeves of which are very wide and open from the wrist to the elbow, and which, when thrown across over the shoulders, is considered among them as a signal for combat. A cap of black lambskin of Astrakhan, with a small crown of red cloth, and boots with long pointed toes, complete their attire. The Tartars, like the rest of the Mahometans [Muslims], are distinguished from the Christians and Armenians by their long beards, which they preserve with a fanatical zeal, and by the top of their cap being turned inside. All make use of the bourka, tied round the neck with a handkerchief, and which is the only winter covering known here.

The character of the Armenians, particularly of those who devote themselves to commerce, is not considered by the Georgians as the most exalted. Always calculating, and engaged in speculations, they would sooner bear with a thousand outrages than with the loss of an ounce of cotton ; but the government may safely reckon on them for any useful enterprise by which their commerce or industry is likely to benefit. In this case they are always ready with their loans.

The Georgians, on the contrary, cherishing the remembrance of the exploits which maintained them as an independent nation, are passionately fond of the profession of arms, and enthusiastic for every thing that is heroical and sublime. Their ballads, which are full of extravagant hyperboles, and fanfaronades on their national valour, contribute to keep alive their love for war, in which, like the rest of the Asiatics, personal courage is considered as the supreme virtue, a notion which they derive from the sort of guerilla warfare which they have hitherto pursued. 

The Georgians wear linen like the Europeans, especially since their intercourse with them. In general, they are tall and well-proportioned; have regular features, dark complexions, and black and expressive eyes. It would be difficult to find throughout Georgia a real native with light hair or blue eyes. 

There is a degree of haughtiness in their carriage and ostentation in their manners, which are not unbecoming men who are certainly capable of the greatest sacrifices; but they are treacherous and deceitful when once offended. They are greatly distinguished from the Armenians by their strong passions, which also render their countenances more animated.

The Tartars wear taffeta shirts, almost always of a red colour, and which they change only once a year, a circumstance which, notwithstanding their continual ablutions, must give a tolerable idea of their uncleanliness. They are generally very corpulent, have dark eyes, and their complexion is nearly a copper colour. They are serious and circumspect in their demeanour, valiant without boasting, industrious, and hospitable. They love war as a hunting expedition, and are as well suited for a rapid excursion as unfit for a slow and continued enterprise.

The general-in-chief [General Alexey Yermolov], well aware of the peculiar character of each of these nations, and wishing to give to it the greatest development possible, removed all the obstacles which obstructed the commerce of the Armenians, and - thus increased the public prosperity. He excited the noble ambition of the Georgian youth, by employing near his person and admitting into his army a great number of native officers who had conducted themselves honourably, and who deserved his confidence. And lastly, he imparted to the warlike character of the Tartars all the steadiness of which it is susceptible, by organizing their contingents in as regular a manner as the natural hatred of every Mahometan [Muslim] for discipline permitted.

The Khans, accustomed, by long abuse of power, to exercise in their provinces all species of tyranny, strove as much as was in their power to impede the uniform march and thwart the organization of the government of Tiflis; but the authors of these disorders, far from succeeding in their attempts, were quickly obliged to fly to another soil. The inhabitants of those provinces, however, being too well satisfied with this kind of administration, and having less tribute to pay when they depend on the authority of a military governor, are never very much inclined to second the continual endeavors of Persia or of the fugitive Khans to excite them to rebellion.

The enlightened policy of the government of Teflis, and the probity, firmness, and well-known prudence of General Yermolow, may very justly be said to have conquered the obstinacy of every party, and succeeded in uniting both Christians and Mussulmans under the same power and standard.

Juan Van Halen y Sarti, Memoirs of Don Juan van Halen (1828) - Part 2

Juan Van Halen y Sarti (1788 – 1864) was a Spanish military officer and adventurer who had a rather colorful life. During the Peninsular War (1808-1813) he initially supported the French and served King Joseph Bonaparte of Spain, helping him escape to France in 1813. He then defected to the Spanish side but was investigated for his role during the war and sentenced to death. In 1817, he avoided death by escaping from prison and fleeing to Russia, where he was accepted into the military service and appointed a colonel in the Kavkazskii Dragoon Regiment deployed in Georgia. In 1819, Van Halen traveled to Georgia where he stayed for over a year and served under the leadership of General Alexey Yermolov. In 1821 Van Halen returned to Spain to support the revolutionaries who rebelled against King Ferdinand VII. After the revolution failed, Van Halen had to flee once again, traveling to the Caribbean. In 1830, he returned to Europe supporting the Belgian revolutionaries against the Dutch monarchy. After the new kingdom of Belgium was established, he moved to the Iberian Peninsula where he first supported Portuguese Liberals against King Miguel I and then fought against the Carlists during the First Carlist Wars in Spain. 

Van Halen died in El Puerto de Santa María (Cadiz, Spain), at the age of 76, in 1864.

In the late 1820s, Van Halen wrote (in Spanish) an interesting memoir describing his imprisonment in Spain in 1817-1818 and later service in the Caucasus in 1819-1821. The memoir was later translated into English and published in London in 1830.



On the morning after my arrival at the place of quarantine I entered Tiflis, and immediately proceeded to General Williaminoff’s [Ivan Velyaminov, division commander], to deliver the dispatches entrusted to me by the general-in chief [Alexey Yermolov]. I met the kindest reception from that general, who introduced me to the officers of the staff, who had remained at Tiflis, and especially to Baron Renemkamph [Paul Rennenkampf], a young Livonian. This officer insisted on my accepting an apartment in his house, and presented me to the best societies of that city.

There were several European families residing here, most of whom belonged to the Russian employes; those whom I principally visited being the governor's, General Van Howen’s [Roman Van Der Hoeven], and that of the general of artillery, General Ahuerdoff [Fedor Akhverdov]. With respect to the Georgian ladies, although I felt the greatest curiosity to be intimately acquainted with them, the attachment they still evince for their ancient Asiatic customs, and consequently their retired habits, rendered their society but little attractive.

The term of my residence at Tiflis, however, did not so much depend on my will as on that of General Williaminoff's, who, far from showing any displeasure at my sojourn, gave me a general invitation to his table, and to his library, in which he spends a great part of his time. Under such favorable auspices, Tiflis soon became for me a second St. Petersburg; but which I was shortly to quit in order to join my regiment, that was stationed at Karakhach [Karaghaji, village in the Sighnaghi municipality], one hundred and forty versts to the east of Tiflis. In this, however, I was prevented by an intermittent fever, which never left me during the eighteen months I remained in this country, and which in five weeks reduced me to a mere skeleton. I am convinced that without the unremitting attendance of Dr. Privil, physician to the government, the cares of my excellent friend Renemkamph, who treated me as if I were his brother, and the medicines and attentions of the good Father Philip, the Catholic missionary residing at Tiflis, who acted as my nurse, my fever would, doubtless, have terminated fatally. One day when it was at the highest, my negro, taking advantage of my situation, seized on my wardrobe and my purse, and proceeded, as I afterwards learned, in the company of an Armenian, to Persia, where, owing to the estimation in which they are held for certain offices in the harems, he was placed in that of the Shah; so that I was obliged to content myself with the services of two deanships [batmen], whom the colonel had just sent me from Karakhach, who could scarcely understand my bad Russian.

Two months having elapsed without any material improvement taking place in my health, and finding unavailing both the prescriptions of my doctor, and the incessant attentions of my numerous friends, I resolved to join my regiment. Accordingly I set off from Tiflis on the 16th of December, in the company of Colonel Nicolas Yermolow [Peter Nikolaevich Yermolov], cousin-german of the general-in-chief, and who commanded the regiment of grenadiers of Grousia, or Georgia [Gruzinskii Grenadier Regiment], whose cantonments were in the same direction as those of mine. I was also accompanied by a new comrade of mine, Baron Ungern, lately arrived from Europe, who was proceeding to join our regiment, in the rank of captain, and by several other officers, all on horseback, among whom was my friend Renemkamph, who rode some distance with us.

Our road, though the shortest from Tiflis to our place of destination, was by no means the best, and as in this season, even in this mild climate, the country assumes the aspect of winter, (which, however, only lasts in Georgia from December till the latter end of January,) it did not much attract my attention. After three hours' ride we arrived at the tower of Prince Chalakaioff [Cholokaev/Choloqashvili], a young Georgian, who, being warned of our arrival, had made some preparations for our reception.

The prince, in his Georgian costume, and surrounded by attendants bearing torches, came out to meet us, and conducted us to a spacious apartment of an almost oval form, splendidly illuminated, around the walls of which was a wide continued bench, covered with beautiful tapestry, with cushions at the back, richly laced and embroidered, and which was to serve us both as seats and beds. The ladies and women of the tower, in our passage to this apartment, peeped, like the nuns in our convents, through the blinds, and chinks of the windows and doors; so that the prince was the only one who did the honours of the house, though in a manner which in Georgia would be considered rather as the reception from a friend than from a mere acquaintance.

As soon as we sat down we were all furnished with long pipes, according to the Russian and Georgian custom, whilst our entertainer caused a long table to be placed before us, and ordered supper to be brought, which consisted of several dishes of meat or poultry, boiled together with rice and dried fruits, with plenty of sugar, or honey, and saffron, a medley which for a European was the most strange they could present. With respect to the plate service, etc., all was in the European manner but as the noblemen of this country have no head servant, or steward, the prince was obliged to be constantly supplying the deficiencies and neglects of his awkward attendants; nor was he able to partake of the repast tranquilly until towards its conclusion, when he took his seat among us to drink, and served us the excellent wine of Kakhetia with that frugality by which these people are distinguished. We drank from the Georgian cup, which is a horn of a touri [Caucasian tur, Capra caucasica] highly polished, and mounted in silver or gold, and which one is obliged to hold in the hand, and drink continually, since it cannot be laid down until it is perfectly empty, the etiquette of this country besides requiring, that the guest should pledge his host every time he drinks.

The wine of Kakhetia resembles in taste, colour, and mild effects, that of La Mancha, and especially that of Valdepenas, which is so much in vogue at Madrid. As this wine is transported in Georgia, as in Spain, in skins, its flavour is a little spoiled; but, nevertheless, it compensated for the strange dishes with which we had been regaled, and kept up the hilarity of the company till midnight, when the table was removed, and the prince withdrew, and locked us in the saloon, where, dressed as we were, we reclined on the cushions, and resigned ourselves to sleep.

At dawn of the following day our host entered our room, and informed us that the carriage and horses of our party were ready; we took our leave of him, and pursued our way by a bad road, across glens and torrent-beds. An hour after we arrived at Zahoredsky, where the battalions of grenadiers of Georgia are encamped, and the situation of which is extremely well adapted to found a city.

The house of the colonel [Peter Yermolov] is built on an excellent plan, not only to afford entertainment to the officers of the regiment, but for the hospitality which he so prodigally lavishes on his friends, and where he invited my new comrade and myself to spend a day. Among his officers the lieutenant-colonel of the regiment, the Georgian Prince Abhazoff [Abkhazov], is distinguished for his personal qualities and military merit; even at the age of fifteen he was decorated with the Russian order of St. George, a military decoration which in the most gallant regiment is scarcely possessed by four individuals.

Colonel Yermolow, and several other officers, accompanied us as far as the meadows and stables belonging to the trains of the regiment, and soon after we arrived at the post-house of Manaba [Manavi?], which is fifty-four versts from Tiflis, and where we spent the night. Most of these houses, which are constructed of osiers and covered with clay, have only the necessary partitions for the reception of the officers, travelers, Cossacks, and horses, that may not chance to arrive.

At day-break we proceeded on our journey, followed by two Cossacks, who were our escort. The morning was cold, and the frost during the night had hardened the little snow that lay on the fields, where we occasionally saw groups of sportsmen. At ten o'clock in the morning we arrived at Dampal [Dampala], where we reposed ourselves awhile, and then proceeded to Signachsk [Sighnaghi], which is thirty-five versts from Manaba. The road between these two towns is tolerably good, except just before entering the latter, which, being situated on a hill, offers a steep ascent. The fields, however, are well cultivated, and many of the country houses and farms, which are seen scattered here and there, must present in summer, by their picturesque situation, delightful prospects.

Signachsk [Sighnaghi], which in the insurrection of 1812 suffered dreadful depredations, is the capital of the province of Kakhetia, and is considered an important point on account of its proximity to the Lesghi Tartars, who inhabit the country on the opposite bank of the river Alazann [Alazani]. It has a population of about three thousand inhabitants, who are protected by a garrison more or less numerous, according to the peaceable or hostile conduct observed by their neighbours. The elevation on which Signachsk stands forms a part of a chain of mountains, which on one side extends towards Tielaw [Telavi], the second city of Kakhetia; and on the other towards Tzarskoi'e, a mountainous district, which runs parallel to the Caucasus, from which it is separated by extensive plains, fifteen and twenty versts wide, covered with forests watered by the Alazann [Alazani], which empties itself into the Koura [Kur/Mtkvari], at one hundred and fifty versts from Signachsk to the southern extremity of the province.

Tielaw [Telavi], far wealthier than the capital on account of its vineyards, forms with the latter a barrier against the Lesghis. The richest lands in that district belong to Tchitchivaze [Chavchavadze], a Georgian prince, educated in Europe, who, though serving in our regiment with the rank of colonel, had succeeded, without neglecting his military duties, in improving his valuable inheritance in such a manner that few Georgian nobles can cope with him in wealth. The grapes of Tielaw [Telavi] are larger, more succulent and delicate, than those gathered on the coast of Malaga. There is also throughout this province a great abundance of wild grapes, which, though they by no means bear a comparison with the others, are nevertheless very good. The wine of Kakhetia, therefore, is so plentiful, especially as it is not at all exported from Georgia, that the daily consumption at Tiflis, is from two to four bottles per person.

Mr. Makachew, the commandant-at-arms of Signachsk [Sighnaghi], to whom we addressed ourselves to obtain quarters for the night, invited us to pass it at his house, from the gallery of which we had a view of the Caucasus, the most magnificent I ever beheld. The atmosphere of Georgia, at all times so pure, was on this night doubly so, on account of the north wind which prevails during the winter season, and together with the brightness of the moon, whose rays illuminated the snowy summits of that varied chain of mountains, produced a most picturesque and brilliant effect, surpassing all I have ever seen both in the Alps and the Pyrenees.

On the following morning we set off on our journey in a carriage belonging to our colonel, which was returning empty to the Karakhach, and to the use of which we were entitled. From Signachsk [Sighnaghi] the descent is so precipitous, that we were obliged to alight, and walk for nearly five versts, in the space of which we met, from distance to distance, water-mills, which, though very imperfect in their construction, furnish sufficient flour for the garrison and resident Europeans, except in times of extraordinary drought.

Having descended the heights of Signachsk [Sighnaghi], we proceeded through fertile and beautiful valleys, which extend along the borders of the river Alazann [Alazani] to beyond Karakhach. The twenty-seven versts between Signachsk and this place are accounted very dangerous, owing to the proximity of the Lesghis, who, though acknowledging the Russian government, occasionally commit acts of depredation which can only be repressed by an armed force, and are in the habit of lying in ambush to surprise travelers, and especially the officers, for whose ransom they demand large sums. 

As the Russian etiquette requires that when an officer arrives at an encampment or at a garrison, he should present himself in full uniform, and as, moreover, we were to alight at our colonel's quarters, we travelled from Signachsk as if we were going to the parade; so that our plumes and uniforms were doubly attractive for the mountaineers, had any been on the alert, particularly as we proceeded without an escort, depending wholly upon our arms. Immediately on our arrival we presented ourselves to our chief, Colonel Klimonskoie [Klimenskii?], who, though he had been an aid-de-camp of the Grand Duke Constantine during the campaigns of 1813 and 1814, did not understand a single word of any other language than that he had learned from his nurse; a circumstance not very common in Russia among the class to which he belonged, and which naturally confined our conversation to a few words; but his good humour compensated for this inconvenience, which was shared by another chief, Mr. Soltikoff [Saltikov], who was my colleague, and by one or two more officers. This inspired me with the hope that I should make a greater progress in the Russian language than I had hitherto done, the knowledge of it being absolutely necessary to enable me to fulfill my duties under the banners I served; but notwithstanding my good will, the deplorable state of my health prevented me from applying myself closely to this study.

[A lengthy discussion of Russian military organization follows]

Our colonel, who was a true officer of the spur, and zealous for the improvement of his corps, always presided at our occupations and amusements, which in the morning consisted of exercises on horseback or on foot, by companies or in the line, of the display of horsemanship by the officers, sergeants, and corporals, and of the exercise of arms. The afternoon was spent in visiting the stables, and admiring the good qualities of some of the horses, who were trained to all kinds of privations, and to eat whilst the report of the pistol sounded in their ears. Our veterans, the greatest part of whom were inured to the climate, and who were the only cavalry of the line in the army of Georgia, had rendered distinguished services in the war against the Persians. On the peace with this power being concluded, they were stationed in their present cantonments, as an advanced post. Their proximity to the Lesghis kept them continually on the alert, and rendered this service, though useful to the soldiers, by no means pleasant.

At night the posts around our encampment were doubled, the qui vive of the sentries confounding itself with the sharp howlings of the tchacals [jackals], which are here so numerous that droves of them advanced towards our encampment to seize on our poultry as soon as it grew dark.

The river Alazann, which is within six or seven versts of Karakhach, is fordable at various times in the year, a circumstance which rendered the exterior service of our camp extremely complicated on dark nights, as the plain extending to the river is covered with thick forests.

A few weeks before my arrival, and on one of these dark nights, some twenty Lesghis descended from the mountains, and crossing the Alazann, succeeded in silently making their way on foot through the cordon formed by the sentries. On arriving at the door of one of the three barracks, they poniarded [stabbed] the sentry stationed there before he had time to give the alarm, and penetrating with the same audacity into the interior of the barrack, where the soldiers were asleep, distributed themselves right and left, and plunged their poniards [small daggers] into the first dragoons they met, till the groans and cries of the dying and wounded awakening their comrades, the confusion became general, especially as the Lesghis, who could recognize each other by their beards, had extinguished the lights and continued their horrible massacre on the defenseless soldiers, who endeavored to gain the door and seize their arms. Patrols having at length arrived with lights, the Lesghis sought to cut their way through them; but seeing the impracticability of this, some of them stabbed themselves on the spot, and the rest surrendered, testifying their joy at the sight of the bleeding corpses of Christians by whom they were surrounded. The fanaticism they evinced, when they underwent the punishment due to their atrocious deeds, proved that their poniards had been directed by their barbarous priests.

This lesson, which might have been still more fatal had the Lesghis been more numerous, and less rash by neglecting to seize on the arms, which are symmetrically placed near the entrance, cost the regiment more than sixty men killed or dangerously wounded; but it produced the extraordinary vigilance which was observable at the time of my arrival at the cantonment, and which one night occasioned the death of a new enemy. A sentry seeing something gently approaching towards him, challenged the object, and observing that it continued advancing without vouchsafing him an answer, immediately fired and effectually arrested its progress. When the patrol repaired to the spot they found that the intruder was a tiger, then in its last agonies.

Opposite to our encampment, on the other side of the Alazann, and at a distance of eighteen or twenty versts, is the city of Belohakan [Balakən], situated at the foot of the Caucasus, and inhabited by the Eingalos [Ingilos], a people whom the Lesghis keep in the most horrible state of slavery, and who formerly belonged to Georgia; but who being too industrious, and attached to their native soil, would never abandon it, during the different revolutions which that country has undergone, and became subject to their present masters. That city carries on a great trade with Tiflis, principally in bourkas, which are manufactured there; and as the traders pass through Karakhach, our colonel, who was the commandant of this district, and from whom they must obtain a passport for Georgia, was obliged to have near him an Eingalo [Ingilo], who understood the Russian language, and served as interpreter. This man had become so familiarized with the officers, that the colonel allowed him to sit at our table. One day we remarked that the interpreter was absent, a circumstance which seldom occurred ; but, as we were finishing our dessert, he entered the dining-room in high spirits, bringing under his arm a bundle, carefully tied, which, he said, contained a fine water melon for our dessert. This fruit, in the middle of December, is considered a great delicacy, and we all expressed a wish that he should produce it, when he immediately untied the bundle, and, to our great horror, we beheld the head of a Lesghi, whom he had killed in fight on the other side of the Alazann during a sporting expedition, roll on the table. Disgusted at this action, which among these barbarous mountaineers would pass as an excellent joke, we all rose from table, and retired to another apartment, whilst the Eingalo [Ingilo] sat down to dinner, and, at every mouthful he took, amused himself with turning the head, which he kept close to his plate, first one way and then another.

Much is said in Europe of the knout, which, it is asserted, a Russian chief frequently applies to his officers. I shall not attempt here to investigate the origin of this opinion, which is often supported with open malice, but merely confine myself to state a fact among the many which every day occur.

Colonel Klimonskoi being displeased with a certain officer of our corps, struck him in the presence of several of his comrades. The outraged officer withdrew; and on the following morning the colonel, seeing him enter the breakfast-room, advanced towards him, and, taking him aside, manifested a wish to give him the satisfaction due to a comrade. The officer, whose character was not of the firmest, understood these words, and immediately declared himself satisfied. All his comrades, who had hitherto maintained that reserve which the affair required, freely gave their opinion ; and from that moment the officer was so greatly despised by all, that he could no longer appear at the same table, and was obliged to remain in his own apartment under the pretext of illness, until the general-in-chief granted the petition which this unfortunate young man addressed to him, for permission to retire from the service, under the usual plea of ill-health.

Some time after this an occurrence similar to the above took place between two officers of different ranks. The inferior officer demanded a satisfaction; blood was spilt; the affront was washed away and the chief and the subordinate became good friends. Indeed, the tolerance with which dueling is looked upon in a nation wholly military, is in itself a guarantee to officers of an inferior rank to be respected by their superiors, since these cannot offer them an affront with impunity. Often, however, the opinions on this subject, among this class of people in Russia, are even chivalrous.

Alexander Yakubovich
(by N. Bestuzhev, 1831)

There was in my regiment an officer whose name was Yakouwovitch [Alexander Yakubovich, the future Decembrist], and who, while he was serving in one of the regiments of the guards [Lige Guard Uhlan Regiment], at St. Petersburg, in the year 1816 or 1817, was invited by one of his friends to act as his second in a duel, in which the former fell, as it is thought, by unfair means. Yakouwovitch, who felt bound to avenge the death of his friend, challenged the assassin, who, to avoid this second affair, contrived a court intrigue, by which Yakouwovitch was immediately dismissed from the guards, and sent, without promotion, to a regiment [Nizhegorodskii Dragoon Regiment] in Georgia, accompanied by a courier. On his arrival at Moscow, he wrote to his adversary, and also to this man's second, again demanding a satisfaction. The former paid no attention to this fresh challenge; but the latter, struck with this manly conduct, accepted the challenge, though the duel was to be fought on the frontiers of Persia. The young Grivaiedoff [Alexander Griboedov], who thus gallantly came forward, was a counsellor of state, and held a post in the foreign office. To the no small astonishment of the ministry, he asked to be employed in the Persian legation; but having obtained the situation of secretary to it, immediately set off for his place of destination, informing Yakouwovitch, whom he believed to be at Tiflis, of his journey, and who received his letter at Karakhach. Having asked the necessary permission, the latter repaired to that city, where he met his opponent, and where they fought with pistols, as is customary; but on the seconds having interfered, after the first firing, the affair did not terminate so fatally as was feared from the nature of the affront. Yakouwovitch returned to his post at Karakhach, and Grivaiedoff, wounded, continued his journey to Tauris [Tabriz], whilst the aggressor remained tranquil at St. Petersburg.

Hunting was at Karakhach the amusement of most of the officers on festival days; but we were obliged to take certain precautions that we might not be hunted instead of hunting. All kinds of game were so abundant in these environs, (where wild goats are still very numerous,) that the six hunters, whom the colonel kept constantly employed in this occupation, furnished so much game to the cantonment, that frequently no other meats were provided than those absolutely required for the service of the hospital.

The natural attachment of my comrades to the customs of their country, induced them to keep the carnival in the fashion of Russia, though of course on a very small scale. Thus, during the short time that the temperature allowed of this kind of amusement, we had Russian mountains, skating, and courses in sledges. In the evening we took tea, and punch was freely served, with pipes of Turkish tobacco, whilst chess and cards, enlivened by the music of the regiment, formed the usual diversion of the winter evenings. The wife of the chaplain of our regiment was the only lady at Karakhach; but the retirement in which she lived deprived us of her company. Her husband, however, who was still young, and whose character and conduct rendered him an object of general esteem, was the ornament of our parties ; a circumstance which was the more highly valued by us, as it is by no means common among the military Russian clergymen. But, indeed, I have known few men more worthy of the respect and friendship which we all, without distinction of religion, felt for him, his tolerance being not the least of his virtues.

I cannot say as much of the doctor, who, without the unremitting cares and attendance of the officers on their sick soldiers, would, after two autumns, have made of Karakhach a vast cemetery. Indeed, the want of good doctors is very much felt in the army of the Caucasus; and this can be attributed only to the negligence of the government at St. Petersburg; a negligence which is the more blamable, as in this part of the empire the soldiers are very subject to sickness. Our corps, like all the others in Russia, furnished men every year to the imperial guard, who were replaced by the conscripts, who are periodically raised throughout the empire. But such was the gross ignorance of the three doctors entrusted with the care of our hospital, (which by the disinterestedness of the colonel, and the affection of the officers for the soldiers, might in every respect serve as a model to any in Russia,) that when they were allowed to act according to their own judgment, three parts of those conscripts fell victims to the fevers prevalent in the country.

Thus the officers and soldiers of the regiment stationed at Karakhach spent most of the time which was not employed in their military duties in acts of friendship and benevolence; constantly struggling with assassins, and surrounded with wild beasts, serpents, scorpions, and swarms of insects, by which we were tormented in our beds, and which disappeared only during the winter season; our knowledge of the events that were passing in the world being confined to the slight information contained in the prikaz [order] which was every week sent from St. Petersburg, and which arrived with more or less regularity, according to the practicability of the passage of couriers through the chain of the mountains.

In the midst of this kind of exile, supportable only because with a military philosophy we all endeavored to overcome the crosses and ennui incident to this kind of life, I received, towards the latter end of February, 1820, the first intelligence from my exiled friends. The circumstance of its probably being the first Spanish letter which has ever been received at the Caucasus, and the person (General Mina) by whom it was written, appear to me worthy of mention here.

The spring beginning now to be felt at Karakhach, the regiment prepared to leave this part of the country, to establish in the month of May their summer encampment at Tzarskoie, which is situated on the high lands forming a continuation of the Signachsk hills, and which is twelve versts distant from Karakhach. This place is well provided with good water, and considered the most salubrious in the environs.

The arrival of General [Alexey] Yermolow at Tiflis, together with the inactivity in which the regiment was likely to remain at Tzarskoie, and my desire to render myself useful during the summer, induced me to ask permission from the general-in-chief to proceed to the capital. Having obtained it, I set off from Karakhach on the 20th of March, accompanied by some officers of the regiment, who were also proceeding to the capital. On our second day's journey we passed through the German colonies, which are within five versts of the capital. These colonists, who are natives of Wurttemberg, were sent into Georgia through the influence of the empress mother [Maria Feodorovna, nee Sophie Dorothea of Wurttemberg], who wished to relieve the misery of the indigent class of her native country. Their proximity to Tiflis enables them to furnish the market with butter, hams, potatoes, and other vegetables which were before unknown to the Georgians. The houses built for them by the government are well adapted to the climate; whilst the protection which they meet, both from the authorities and from those Germans employed in the country, contribute much to their prosperity.

We arrived early on the 5th of April at Tiflis, where my friend the Baron Renempkamph again invited me to take up my quarters at his house. Having immediately presented myself to General Yermolow, and expressed a wish of rendering myself useful during the summer out of my regiment, studiously concealing from him the real state of my health, which was still in a most deplorable state, I obtained the only favour he had in his power to grant, namely, my remaining at Tiflis near his person until an opportunity should offer.

Juan Van Halen y Sarti, Memoirs of Don Juan van Halen (1828) - Part 1

Juan Van Halen y Sarti (1788 – 1864) was a Spanish military officer and adventurer who had a rather colorful life. During the Peninsular War (1808-1813) he initially supported the French and served King Joseph Bonaparte of Spain, helping him escape to France in 1813. He then defected to the Spanish side but was investigated for his role during the war and sentenced to death. In 1817, he avoided death by escaping from prison and fleeing to Russia, where he was accepted into the military service and appointed a colonel in the Kavkazskii Dragoon Regiment deployed in Georgia. In 1819, Van Halen traveled to Georgia where he stayed for over a year and served under the leadership of General Alexey Yermolov. In 1821 Van Halen returned to Spain to support the revolutionaries who rebelled against King Ferdinand VII. After the revolution failed, Van Halen had to flee once again, traveling to the Caribbean. In 1830, he returned to Europe supporting the Belgian revolutionaries against the Dutch monarchy. After the new kingdom of Belgium was established, he moved to the Iberian Peninsula where he first supported Portuguese Liberals against King Miguel I and then fought against the Carlists during the First Carlist Wars in Spain. 

Van Halen died in El Puerto de Santa María (Cadiz, Spain), at the age of 76, in 1864.

In the late 1820s, Van Halen wrote (in Spanish) an interesting memoir describing his imprisonment in Spain in 1817-1818 and later service in the Caucasus in 1819-1821. The memoir was later translated into English and published in London in 1830.

Beyond Mozdok, and before crossing the Terek, travelers coming from Georgia are obliged to perform quarantine, whilst those coming from the south meet on the opposite side with a similar impediment. General [Alexey] Yermolov has established several other quarantines as far as Tiflis and throughout Georgia, with the view of preventing the introduction of the plague, which previous to his government had frequently been brought to this country by its neighbors, the Turks and the Persians. I crossed the Terek in a barge, and arrived early in the afternoon at the place of quarantine, where I underwent but a slight examination, as no danger was to be apprehended from the direction I came.

From the river Terek to the foot of the Caucasus, there are three important military posts; namely, the redoubt of Constantine, which is thirty-three versts from the river; that of Elizabeth, twenty-eight versts further; and the fortress of Vladikavkaz, twenty-two versts from the last. Every day at dawn a convoy, consisting of from a hundred and fifty to three hundred men, and almost always with a field-piece, proceeds from one point to the other, a very necessary precaution to prevent any audacious attack from the bands of Kabardines and Tcherkesses [Circassians], who overrun the country on each side of the road.

I left the place of quarantine the next morning with the convoy, which did not reach till noon the first redoubt, where I was obliged to pass the night, in order to proceed in the same order of march on the following day. The troops stationed in these redoubts are very well lodged; and, as these places likewise serve to shelter the Armenian merchants and other travelers in their journey through this country, there are inns, kept by Russians, or by people of the country, which are generally well provided with all sorts of provisions. The soldiers have, near the redoubts, gardens, which they cultivate for their own use ; and, as in every military cantonment in Russia, vapour-baths, which are much in use among the Russians.

Between Mozdok and Vladikavkaz, there are two extensive plains, intersected by a long chain of mountains of the second order, running almost parallel with the principal chain, and crowned with thick forests. From their summit is seen the redoubt of Constantine, and the line of the Terek. Game is so abundant here, that if the good order which ought to be observed in a convoy did not prevent the travelers from shooting, they alone would be able to furnish daily sufficient game for the troops of the redoubt. As I was walking at a short distance from the vanguard, I observed something dark not far off, which I at first believed to be some men in ambush, but which, on a nearer approach, proved to be an immense eagle, that did not offer to stir, though we passed within pistol-shot of it.

The redoubt of Elizabeth, where we arrived on the following day, is situated in a plain, the soil of which is less fertile than that of the former. The first redoubt constructed by the Russians in this place, more than twenty years ago, was taken, after an obstinate resistance, by the Kabardines and the Tcherkesses, who reduced it to ruins. Near the redoubt are seen at present some hovels of Kabardines, who are living under the protection of the government. Having forgotten the key of my portmanteau in the redoubt of Constantine, and mentioned it to one of the officers stationed here, he spoke to a Kabardine, who offered to bring it to me in a few hours. This man presented himself to me on horseback, and wore a white band round his flat black cap, which I was told was a distinctive mark of a Kabardine priest. On the following morning, at day-break, the key was in my possession; but the good Mahometan [Muslim] minister, with whom I was advised to make no agreement lest he should think I mistrusted him, made me pay very dearly for his nocturnal journey.

Half-way between Elizabeth and Vladikavkaz, the river Terek flows at a short distance from the road. On the banks of this river are seen some hamlets of Kabardines, who, though submitted to the authority established here, are in the habit of sheltering their marauding countrymen; a circumstance which renders traveling, even in sight of this fortress, unsafe.

We arrived before noon at Vladikavkaz, which means, in Russian, the empire of the Caucasus, probably because it is the gate of the only practicable passage through these mountains. This town, which is but newly built on a very regular plan, offers a striking contrast to the other places in this country. There is a military hospital, very advantageously situated with respect to salubrity; and, as Vladikavkaz is the residence of several families of employes, the society is a great inducement for any officer or traveller, whose duties do not render his immediate departure necessary, to make a short stay in this place. The commandant of the Vladikavkaz, who is usually a colonel or a major-general, inhabits a house belonging to the government, situated in the finest part of the town, the walls of which are bathed by the Terek, which is again crossed by a wooden bridge. The many forests abounding with game, by which Vladikavkaz is surrounded, the fertility of the neighboring country, and the purity of the atmosphere, all contribute to make this city the most agreeable place of residence.

I left Vladikavkaz, the day after my arrival, with an escort of twenty infantry and two Cossacks, who accompanied me as far as a small Assetinian [Ossetian] village called Balta, where there is a redoubt, in which I passed the night.

After crossing the Terek, all the posts as far as the frontier of Persia are served by Cossacks of the Don, who furnish the army of Georgia with several regular squadrons, more or less numerous according to circumstances. These men do not only escort the travelers, but furnish them with horses, for which they are paid at the same rate as if they belonged to the post. In all the stations of Cossacks which are without the redoubts, there is a watch-tower, built of wood, in which a sentry is always posted to observe the surrounding country. From Vladikavkaz till after crossing the defiles and the mountains, the escorts of infantry are relieved at short distances, the chain of redoubts maintaining an active communication, and contributing to the safety of the road.

This, from the above place to Balta, proceeds along the brow of the mountains, and will only attract the attention of those who have not seen the Pyrenees or the Alps; but beyond that redoubt, every step offers a prodigy of nature or of art. When the rigour of the season, which in the Caucasus lasts from the month of November till March, is passed, the usual day's journey is from Balta to Kazbek, a distance of twenty-five versts. Several small villages, perched in places almost inaccessible, are passed, as well as two redoubts, the first of which is called Larskoi, and the second Darial. On descending the height on which Balta stands, the road, the construction of which must have cost immense labour, passes through steep rocks, among which the Terek flows compressed into a narrow channel. Beyond it there is a natural arch, formed by a rock, extending eight or ten paces ; and as the road proceeds along the borders of the impetuous torrent, its foaming waters fall in showers, scattering themselves over the road. From this spot is seen, on a great elevation, the redoubt Larskoi, beyond which the defiles as far as Darial are of such a nature, that a hundred men standing on the summits of the inaccessible rocks which form them, and hurling down missiles, would suffice to arrest the progress of the most formidable army, especially as there is no avenue by which those heights might be turned. In many parts of the road, the rocks meet, and form an archway, whose wide fissures and cleft vaults seem as if they would every moment obstruct it. On leaving these defiles behind, and before reaching the redoubt of Darial, the Terek is again crossed by a bridge. Opposite to the entrance of the defile, and within a short distance of the bridge, rises, in the middle of the river, a rock seven hundred feet in height, on the summit of which is an old fortress, which for many ages has commanded this passage. By placing on it a few cannon, and destroying the bridge, no human power could cross the Caucasus.

If on one side we are struck with awe at the work of nature, on the other we are no less surprised at seeing built on such a height a fortress which was provided with water by an aqueduct, the remains of which are still perceivable, and a vaulted road descending to the river. On the summit of the rock, the soil, which is capable of cultivation, would maintain a garrison of eight hundred men.

Darial, in the Tartar language, means a gate; and certainly no name could be more appropriate for this place, where the traveller is ocularly convinced of the horrible tyranny which Persia must have exercised over Georgia, to oblige her to cut a passage through the Caucasus in order to communicate with the empire to which its provinces now belong. Indeed, General Yermolov has done every thing in his power to open a road through the Daghestan; but I shall have an opportunity of mentioning in the sequel the serious obstacles which oppose themselves to its execution.

After Darial, the road offers a different aspect; but, if possible, more imposing. On the right the Terek flows with an astounding noise, rendered more frightful by the deep silence that reigns in these solitudes, and loudly reechoed on the left by the rocks, piled one above another, and which increased in height as we advanced.

Two versts further the immense mount Kazbek is seen, rising in the form of a sugar-loaf, from the summit of which avalanches detach themselves almost yearly, and obstruct the road in such a manner that only a narrow passage resembling a cavern is left for the traveller, and through which one proceeds as over a sheet of ice until within one verst of the place called Kazbek. This kind of road offers many obstacles to the artillery, or to any sort of vehicle, and is altogether impracticable during the fall of the avalanches, when the travelers are obliged to pass by means of ropes, in the use of which the Assetinians [Ossetians] excel. It is not the pen but the pencil that can sketch the extraordinary aspect presented by that immense mass of snow furrowed by the waters of the Terek, which, dashing themselves from a succession of cascades, keep up a continual roaring truly awful in those rocky defiles.

Although from Darial to Kazbek there is only seven versts, they occupied me four hours, not so much on account of the difficulties offered by the road, as because my attention was continually attracted, either by the enormous precipices, down which the impetuous torrent rushed, and whose foam surpassed in whiteness that of the snow by which the mountains were covered, or by the diversity of shapes presented by the rocks.

The small village of Kazbek is surrounded by meadow land, which affords pasture to the cattle of the few inhabitants of this place, where I found a much better lodging than I expected at the house of the late Colonel Kazbek, whose family is one of the most ancient of the Caucasus; indeed so ancient, that it derived its name from the mountain, and descends from one of the chiefs of the Assetinians [Ossetians]. This family profess the Greek religion, and the women have all the shyness of the Georgian females. They sent me a bottle of wine of their own vintage, which greatly resembled Madeira both in taste and colour; and when I went to present my respects to them and thank them for their civilities, they all ran away, and hid themselves as if they saw a ghost.

My apartment consisted of a saloon, furnished in the European style, and which had been destined by the colonel, who was a man much attached to the Russians, for the greater convenience of travelers. It was altogether detached from the tower, and did not resemble the latter either in the interior or exterior of its apartments, where I could see the shadows of the women gliding like phantoms to and fro. From the window of my saloon I had a full view of the mountain Kazbek, whose shining peak, illuminated by the rays of a clear moon, permitted me to distinguish, notwithstanding its being at the distance of thirty versts, the snows drifted by the wind, which perpetually reigns in those regions, and falling in masses down its perpendicular sides. I was here told, that an English traveller, having prepared himself with every thing he stood in need of for the ascent, succeeded in reaching, accompanied by a guide, about the middle of the mountain ; but, when he attempted to ascend higher, the pain he felt in the chest and ears was so great, that he was obliged to content himself with leaving a mark, and retrace his steps. It is asserted that the Kazbek is one of the three highest points of the globe.

The village of Kazbek contains above three hundred inhabitants, the greatest part of whom are shepherds and vassals of the present proprietor, the son of the late colonel. The party of Cossacks, which is the only troop stationed here, as the inhabitants excite no apprehensions, all of them being Christians, are quartered in a house contiguous to that of the lord of the village. Hurricanes are here very frequent, either on account of the proximity to the mountain, or of the great elevation on which the village stands. One of them was experienced on the night of my sojourn here, and shook my apartment so much, that notwithstanding the solidity with which it was built, I expected at every moment to be buried under its ruins.

I left Kazbek on the following morning at daybreak, although the account I received respecting the state of the road was by no means encouraging, and although the rain and the wind were both high and violent. My escort consisted only of six Cossacks belonging to this station; but it was sufficient, as we had no danger to apprehend. The road from the above village to Kobi, which is seventeen versts distant, offers nothing very remarkable, except that the country is a little more open. On the right of the road and in a small valley stands the redoubt of Kobi, where travellers find, tolerably good lodgings, and a magazine of provisions, kept by a Russian, not very well provided.

Beyond Kobi is a high mountain, over which the road passes, and at the foot of which are some ferruginous waters, which have restored to health many persons who in Georgia were thought incurable. Although we were on horseback, and followed by a small escort of infantry, accustomed to march in these places, we spent seven hours in performing seventeen versts, which is the distance between Kobi and Kaichaur. The mountain we ascended, which is called Kristogara, or St. Christopher, is the most elevated point the traveller meets in crossing the Caucasus. There is on the summit a wooden cross, and a cabin inhabited by an Assetiman [Ossetian] family. At this point the course of the rivers which flow through the valleys of the Caucasus takes an opposite direction- The wind, which during the whole day was very high, and which on the top of the mountain blew furiously, gave me a tolerable idea of what it must be in the middle of winter, when, according to the account I received from the officers of the redoubt, traveling in vehicles is quite impracticable, notwithstanding the excellence of the road, which has as much width and solidity as any in the empire. Indeed, the whole passage throughout these mountains is so obstructed during that season, that the extraordinary couriers sent from Tiflis to St. Petersburg, are obliged to make use of ropes and other contrivances to effect their passage through these defiles.

The head of the Assetinian [Ossetian] family established on the summit of St. Christopher, and whose good will I gained by presenting him with some brandy, a liquor of which the Assetinians  [Ossetians] are passionately fond, accompanied me as far as the redoubt, and, as I was informed, had rendered many useful services to travelers, particularly in winter, when, to the great astonishment of all, his hut and family had hitherto resisted the excessive rigours of winter in that unsheltered situation, where they are almost buried in the snow. These attentions on his part are the more singular, as, besides what I have already said respecting the character of the Assetinians [Ossetians], it is not long since some of his countrymen assassinated in the most cruel manner all the Russian soldiers whom they could surprise in those difficult passages. It is necessary to have all the avarice of the Armenian merchants to support, with still more patience than their own beasts, the painful conveyance of their merchandize; preferring the numberless inconveniences of this road, rather than give the least gratification to the inhabitants of the country, who might afford them such effectual assistance, and who would thereby take an interest in the success of their undertakings ; whilst at present it is only by the presence of the troops that the mountaineers are prevented from plundering them.

On the following day I set off, accompanied by four Cossacks, and with remarkably fine weather to cheer my journey. We began descending the immense elevation on which Kaichaur is situated, and which is the last difficult passage of the Caucasus ; when, two hours after leaving that place, in exchange for the terrific beauties of nature, the most varied and enchanting scenery presented itself. At the bottom of the precipices, which we were now leaving in the rear, are seen scattered about several small villages and fertile valleys, watered by the river Aragua [Aragvi], which has its source near St. Christopher, and which flows in an opposite direction to the Terek. In these valleys, which enjoy an eternal spring, the mildness of the temperature formed the most striking contrast with the excessive cold which is felt during the crossing of St. Christopher, even in summer; and in proportion as we advanced, Georgia burst on my sight, covered, like Andalusia, with luxuriant fields, and hills crowned with woods, on many of which are seen the ruins of old towers and ancient fortresses. Even in the month of September the trees still preserved the freshness of spring, whilst the harmonious war-blings of an immense variety of birds, seemed to announce that we were on the point of treading on the favourite soil of the Creator of the Caucasus.

On the long descent of Kaichaur being terminated, we crossed the Aragua [Aragvi] by a bridge, on one side of which stands a pyramid of stone, marking the limits between the Assetinian  [Ossetian] territory and Georgia; and at eleven o'clock in the morning we arrived at Passananur [Pasanauri], the first village or redoubt which is met with in following the course of the Aragua, the borders of which are pleasantly wooded. The fine sky of Georgia makes a lively impression on the traveller, though he may have been born under that which embellishes the smiling borders of the Guadalquivir; as do also the cheerful countenances and fine stature of the Georgians, contrasted with the gloomy air and mean appearance of the mountaineers.

The road from Passananur to Ananur, a distance of twenty versts, lies also between the valleys watered by the rapid Aragua, on both sides of which are seen among woods, now country houses, and now the ruins of the flanked towers, which in former times were the means of defence among the Georgians. My escort consisted only of two Cossacks; but with whom I might very well have dispensed, as there could be no danger in a road so much frequented. About three versts from Ananur are seen the turrets of the ancient Greek church, which is situated on a steep rock, overlooking the town, and opposite to the road. Before reaching the city we were obliged to perform quarantine at a lodging extremely damp, and well adapted to try the health of the most robust man, where travelers are generally detained [for twenty four] hours.

Ananur, the population of which was formerly very great, contains at present between three and four thousand inhabitants. It is protected by a fortress, the command of which is entrusted to a colonel of the army. The term of my detention at the place of quarantine having expired, I set off, accompanied only by a Cossack. This road, which before the arrival of General Yermolov in Georgia was as dangerous on account of the Lesghis as that passing through the country of the Kabardines, was in 1819 so safe as to render any escort unnecessary. In proportion as I proceeded towards the interior of Georgia, I remarked a greater resemblance between this country and Andalusia; the farms scattered here and there, and within sight of the road, perfectly resemble what in Spain is called cortijos ; the picturesque situation of the villages; the fertility of the country ; the gaiety of the peasants; their merry and continual songs, and even their lazy habits, which their rich soil seems to encourage; every thing assimilates the Georgians to the lower class of Andalusians.

At a short distance from Ananur, after crossing a branch of the Aragua, is the new building for the quarantine, which General Yermolov has caused to be erected to replace that we had just left, and which is extremely well situated. I arrived at Douchet [Dusheti], which is nineteen versts from Ananur, at sunset, and found a good lodging at the commandant-at-arms, who kindly invited me to spend the night at his house.

Douchet is a larger place than Ananur, and enjoys the most delightful climate. In the evening, as I traversed the town to go to the commandant’s residence, which is just outside the gates, I saw most of the inhabitants sitting at the doors of their houses, forming small circles, some chatting merrily, and others singing. The building where the commandant resided, is surrounded by a thick and high wall forming a perfect square. It is encircled by an exterior gallery, and has a large saloon in the centre, and a great number of smaller rooms; all the windows are unglazed; but they have wooden blinds, curiously carved, in the style of those of Andalusia. It has only one floor, the whole built of stone ; the roof is flat, and forms a terrace. This place was the ordinary residence of one of the last Tzars. In the saloon was held the supreme tribunal of a country which knew no law; there the prince gave audience, and in imitation of the Shahs of Persia, exercised various atrocious and tyrannical acts.

The commandant-at-arms, who was a great sportsman, accompanied me very early in the morning till within a short distance of Meskhet [Mtskheta], which is nineteen versts from Douchet. Before arriving at the former town, there is an extensive field on the borders of the Aragua, where the park of instruction for the artillery of the army of Georgia, which is usually stationed at Tiflis, is yearly formed.

Meskhet [Mtskheta] was the capital of the ancient Kurtchistan [Gurjistan], now Georgia. The river Kur, formerly Cirus, bathes its ruined walls, and receives the waters of the Aragua. This city continued to be the seat of government for twenty centuries, till one of its Tzars transferred his residence to Twilis, (which in the Georgian language signifies warm springs, and from which Tiflis takes it name,) in the hope of deriving some benefit from its waters. 

The Georgians, referring to their ancient confused traditions, pretend, that Meskhet was founded by a near descendant of Noah, who named it after himself, choosing that spot on account of the unrivaled beauty of its situation. There is at Meskhet a church built of stone, which not all the fury of the Mussulmans has been able to destroy. The relievos [reliefs] of several groups of allegorical figures, which still exist, though a little injured, are sufficient to show the great merit of the work.

In a corner of the walls of the ruined fortress there is a chapel, so small that it might more properly be called a niche, which, it is asserted, was used by the captive Nono [Nino] as his  [her] sanctuary. The cross, made of broom, and tied with his [her] hair, with which he [she] converted the Tzar Mirian, and made so many proselytes, was carried into the mountains during the various invasions of the Mussulmans, and lastly to Moscow, where it was preserved until the Emperor Alexander I caused it to be returned to the Georgians. 

There is also a monastery, the dome of which is perforated by cannon balls, and which the Persians, unable to take possession of it, vainly endeavored to destroy. This monastery, situated on the borders of the Kur, contains the mortal remains of the noblest families of the country, and was the place where the coronation of the Tzars of Georgia was performed. The solidity with which it was originally built, and its present ruined state, give one an idea of the dreadful revolutions which it has undergone. The population of this city amounts but to little more than 500 inhabitants, whose dwellings are scattered over a space of ground which, in former times, presented 80,000 combatants.

On the borders of the river, and on the northern part of the city, are still seen the remains of a fortress, the foundations of which were laid twenty centuries ago. According to the traditions current in the country, this fortress inclosed a palace, where a Georgian princess, subject to violent passions, often invited the young travelers to sojourn; and, after having gratified her illicit desires, caused them to be precipitated into the river from the top of the tower, hoping by this means to conceal her criminal excesses.

Within a few versts of Meskhet there is a spring, which flows into the Kur, and which still preserves the name of Armasm Zkala [Armazis tskali] or the water of Armasm, an idol to whom in ancient times the princes immolated the first-born of their vassals. Idolatry having been substituted by the gospel, the idol met the same fate which in similar cases all idols meet. The Lesghis, who now saw this place abandoned, descended from the neighboring mountains, and established here their ambushes to surprise the passengers, whether men or women, whom they carried away to sell in Natalia or in Egypt.

A chain of mountains extends from Meskhet to the province of Imeretia, as far as the coasts of the Black Sea. In these mountains are seen the caverns which served the unhappy inhabitants of the town as places of concealment, when the barbarians in their invasions sought them as their prey. Indeed, the neighborhood of Meskhet has not only been the theatre of atrocities in ancient times, but even in our own; and, until the arrival of General Yermolov, it was a place most dangerous for travelers.

The Kur is crossed by a bridge, which, according to the opinion of antiquarians, was built at the epoch when Pompey was in Georgia. It has two great circular towers at each extremity, which, in those times, must have been sufficient to defend that passage, and have given a greater importance to Meskhet. Two or three versts beyond this city the heights are left to the right, and the traveller enters the fertile soil of Tiflis, where I saw the Georgian peasant ploughing the land with three or four couples of buffaloes, a method which must be attributed rather to the routine of these men than to the nature of the ground.

Five versts before reaching Tiflis, the city is seen spreading in the form of an amphitheater, on the banks of the river Kur, at the extremity of a defile, formed by two bold ranges of mountains. On the left of the road, following the course of the river, is the place of quarantine, where I was detained but a short time, it being established rather for the merchants, whose goods demand continual precautions, than for the traveling officers.